Abstract
Athletic performance shows a time-of-day effect, possible causes for which are environmental factors (which can be removed in laboratory studies), the sleep-wake cycle and the internal “body clock”. The evidence currently available does not enable the roles of these last two factors to be separated. Even so, results indicate that the body clock probably does play some role in generating rhythms in sports performance, and that to deny this is unduly critical. Protocols to assess the separate roles of the body clock and time awake are then outlined. A serious impediment to experimental work is muscle fatigue, when maximal or sustained muscle exertion is required. Dealing with this problem can involve unacceptably prolonged protocols but alternatives which stress dexterity and eye-hand co-ordination exist, and these are directly relevant to many sports (shooting, for example). The review concludes with suggestions regarding the future value to sports physiology of chronobiological studies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Åkerstedt T, Hume K, Minors D et al (1993) Regulation of sleep and naps on an irregular schedule. Sleep 16:736–743
Åkerstedt T, Hume K, Minors D et al (1998) Experimental separation of time of day and homeostatic influences on sleep. Am J Physiol (Regulat, Integrat and Comp Physiol) 274:R1162–R1168
Aldemir H, Atkinson G, Cable NT et al (2000) Comparison of the immediate effects of moderate exercise in the early morning and late afternoon on core temperature and cutaneous thermoregulatory mechanisms. Chronobiol Int 17:197–207. doi:10.1081/CBI-100101043
Arnett M (2002) Effects of prolonged and reduced warm-ups on diurnal variation in body temperature and swim performance. J Strength Cond Res 16:256–261. doi:10.1519/1533-4287(2002)016<0256:EOPARW>2.0.CO;2
Atkinson G, Reilly T (1995) Effects of age and time of day on preferred work rates during prolonged exercise. Chronobiol Int 12:121–134. doi:10.3109/07420529509064507
Atkinson G, Reilly T (1996) Circadian variation in sports performance. Sports Med 21:292–312. doi:10.2165/00007256-199621040-00005
Atkinson G, Spiers L (1998) Diurnal variations in tennis serve. Percept Mot Skills 86:1335–1338
Atkinson G, Todd C, Reilly T et al (2005) Diurnal variation in cycling performance: influence of warm-up. J Sports Sci 23:321–329. doi:10.1080/02640410410001729919
Bambaeichi E, Reilly T, Cable N et al (2005) The influence of time of day and partial sleep loss on muscle strength in eumenorrheic females. Ergonomics 48:1499–1511. doi:10.1080/00140130500101437
Barattini P (1997) Circadian rhythms, athletic performance and jet-lag. Med Sport (Roma) 50:127–139
Baxter C, Reilly T (1983) Influence of time of day on all-out swimming. Br J Sports Med 17:122–127. doi:10.1136/bjsm.17.2.122
Bessot N, Nicolas A, Moussay S et al (2006) The effect of pedal rate and time of day on the time to exhaustion from high-intensity exercise. Chronobiol Int 23:1009–1024. doi:10.1080/07420520600920726
Bishop D (2004) The effects of travel on team performance in the Australian national netball competition. J Sci Med Sport 7:118–122. doi:10.1016/S1440-2440(04)80050-1
Blumert P, Crum A, Ernsting M et al (2007) The acute effects of twenty-four hours of sleep loss on the performance of national caliber male collegiate weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 21:1146–1154. doi:10.1519/R-21606.1
Brisswalter J, Bieuzen F, Giacomoni M et al (2007) Morning-to-evening differences in oxygen uptake kinetics in short-duration cycling exercise. Chronobiol Int 24:495–506. doi:10.1080/07420520701420691
Bullock N, Martin D, Ross A et al (2007) Effect of long haul travel on maximal sprint performance and diurnal variations in elite skeleton athletes. Br J Sports Med 41:569–573. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2006.033233
Callard D, Davenne D, Gauthier A et al (2000) Circadian rhythms in human muscular efficiency: continuous physical exercise versus continuous rest. A crossover study. Chronobiol Int 17:693–704. doi:10.1081/CBI-100101075
Cappaert T (1999) Review: time of day effect on athletic performance: an update. J Strength Cond Res 13:412–421. doi:10.1519/1533-4287(1999)013<0412:TODEOA>2.0.CO;2
Coldwells A, Atkinson G, Reilly T (1994) Sources of variation in back and leg dynamometry. Ergonomics 37:79–86. doi:10.1080/00140139408963625
Deschenes M, Kraemer W, Bush J et al (1998) Biorhythmic influences on functional capacity of human muscle and physiological responses. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:1399–1407. doi:10.1097/00005768-199809000-00008
Drust B, Waterhouse J, Atkinson G et al (2005) Circadian rhythms in sports performance: an update. Chronobiol Int 22:21–40. doi:10.1081/CBI-200041039
Edwards B, Edwards W, Waterhouse J et al (2005a) Can cycling performance in an early morning, laboratory-based cycle time-trial be improved by morning exercise the day before? Int J Sports Med 26:651–656. doi:10.1055/s-2004-830439
Edwards B, Lindsay K, Waterhouse J (2005b) Effect of time of day on the accuracy and consistency of the badminton serve. Ergonomics 48:1488–1498. doi:10.1080/00140130500100975
Edwards B, Waterhouse J, Atkinson G et al (2007) Effects of time of day and distance upon accuracy and consistency of throwing darts. J Sports Sci 25:1531–1538. doi:10.1080/02640410701244975
Edwards B, Waterhouse J, Reilly T (2008) Circadian rhythms and their association with body temperature and time awake when performing a simple task with the dominant and non-dominant hand. Chronobiol Int 25:115–132. doi:10.1080/07420520801921614
Forsyth J, Reilly T (2004) Circadian rhythms in blood lactate concentration during incremental ergometer rowing. Eur J Appl Physiol 92:69–74. doi:10.1007/s00421-004-1059-8
Gauthier A, Davenne D, Martin A et al (1996) Diurnal rhythm of the muscular performance of elbow flexors during isometric contractions. Chronobiol Int 13:135–146. doi:10.3109/07420529609037077
Giacomoni M, Billaut F, Falgairette G (2006) Effects of the time of day on repeated all-out cycle performance and short-term recovery patterns. Int J Sports Med 27:468–474. doi:10.1055/s-2005-865822
Guette M, Gondin J, Martin A (2005) Time-of-day effect on the torque and neuromuscular properties of dominant and non-dominant quadriceps femoris. Chronobiol Int 22:541–558. doi:10.1081/CBI-200062407
Haimov I, Arendt J (1999) The prevention and treatment of jet lag. Sleep Med Rev 3:229–240. doi:10.1016/S1087-0792(99)90004-7
Hill DW, Hill CM, Fields K et al (1993) Effects of jet lag on factors related to sports performance. Can J Appl Physiol 18:91–103
Hill D, Leiferman J, Lynch N et al (1998) Temporal specificity in adaptations to high-intensity exercise training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:450–455. doi:10.1097/00005768-199803000-00017
Iellamo F, Pigozzi F, Parisi A et al (2003) The stress of competition dissociates neural and cortisol homeostasis in elite athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 43:539–545
Javierre C, Calvo M, Diez A et al (1996) Influence of sleep and meal schedules on performance peaks in competitive sprinters. Int J Sports Med 17:404–408. doi:10.1055/s-2007-972869
Jehue R, Street D, Huizeuga R (1993) Effect of time zone and game time changes on peak performance: National Football League. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:127–131. doi:10.1249/00005768-199301000-00017
Khalsa S, Jewett M, Cajochen C et al (2003) A phase response curve to single bright light pulses in human subjects. J Physiol 549:945–952. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2003.040477
Kin-Isler A (2006) Time-of-day effects in maximal anaerobic performance and blood lactate concentration during and after a supramaximal exercise. Isokinet Exerc Sci 14:335–340
Kleitman N (1963) Sleep and Wakefulness, 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London, p 297
Kline C, Durstine J, Davis J et al (2007) Circadian variation in swim performance. J Appl Physiol 102:641–649. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00910.2006
Lemmer B, Kern R, Nold G et al (2002) Jet lag in athletes after eastward and westward time-zone transition. Chronobiol Int 19:743–764. doi:10.1081/CBI-120005391
Manfredini R, Manfredini F, Fersini C et al (1998) Circadian rhythms, athletic performance, and jet lag. Br J Sports Med 32:101–106. doi:10.1136/bjsm.32.2.101
Martin L, Thompson K (2000) Reproducibility of diurnal variation in sub-maximal swimming. Int J Sports Med 21:387–392. doi:10.1055/s-2000-3829
Martin L, Doggart A, Whyte G (2001) Comparison of physiological responses to morning and evening submaximal running. J Sports Sci 19:969–976. doi:10.1080/026404101317108471
Meney I, Waterhouse J, Atkinson G et al (1998) The effect of one night’s sleep deprivation on temperature, mood, and physical performance in subjects with different amounts of habitual physical activity. Chronobiol Int 14:125–132
Minors D, Nicholson A, Spencer M et al (1986) Irregularity of rest and activity: studies on circadian rhythmicity in man. J Physiol 381:279–295
Mougin F, Simonrigaud M, Davenne D et al (1991) Effects of sleep disturbance on subsequent physical performance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 63:77–82. doi:10.1007/BF00235173
Naitoh P, Kelly T, Babkoff H (1993) Sleep inertia: best time not to wake up? Chronobiol Int 10:109–118. doi:10.3109/07420529309059699
Nicolas A, Gauthier A, Bessot N et al (2005) Time-of-day effects on myoelectric and mechanical properties of muscle during maximal and prolonged isokinetic exercise. Chronobiol Int 22:997–1011. doi:10.1080/07420520500397892
Nicolas A, Gauthier A, Bessot N et al (2008a) Effect of time-of-day on neuromuscular properties of knee extensors after a short exhaustive cycling exercise. Isokinet Exerc Sci 16:33–40
Nicolas A, Gauthier A, Trouillet J et al (2008b) The influence of circadian rhythm during a sustained submaximal exercise and on recovery process. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 18:284–290. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2006.10.003
O’Connor P, Morgan W, Koltyn K et al (1991) Air travel across four time zones in college swimmers. J Appl Physiol 70:756–763
O’Connor P, Youngstedt S, Buxton O et al. (2004) FIMS (Fédération Internationale de Médecine du Sport) position statement. Air travel and performance in sports. http://www.fims.org. (Accessed February, 2009)
Piggins H (2002) Human clock genes. Ann Med 34:394–400. doi:10.1080/078538902320772142
Racinais S, Hue O, Hertogh C et al (2004) Time-of-day effects in maximal anaerobic leg exercise in tropical environment: a first approach. Int J Sports Med 25:186–190. doi:10.1055/s-2003-45258
Racinais S, Blonc S, Hue O (2005a) Effects of active warm-up and diurnal increase in temperature on muscular power. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37:2134–2139. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000179099.81706.11
Racinais S, Blonc S, Jonville S et al (2005b) Time of day influences the environmental effects on muscle force and contractility. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37:256–261. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000149885.82163.9F
Racinais S, Connes P, Bishop D et al (2005c) Morning versus evening power output and repeated-sprint ability. Chronobiol Int 22:1029–1039. doi:10.1080/07420520500397918
Reilly T (1982) Circadian variation in ventilatory and metabolic adaptations to submaximal exercise. Br J Sports Med 16:115–116. doi:10.1136/bjsm.16.2.115-a
Reilly T (1990) Human circadian rhythms and exercise. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 18:165–180
Reilly T (1994) Circadian rhythms. In: Harries M, Williams C, Stanish W, Micheli L (eds) Oxford textbook of sports medicine. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 238–254
Reilly T (2007) Circadian rhythms. In: Winter E, Jones A, Davison R Bromley P, Mercer T (eds) Sport and exercise physiology testing guideline: the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science Guide; Vol 1, Sport Testing. Routledge, London, pp 54–60
Reilly T, Bambaeichi E (2003) Methodological issues in studies of rhythms in human performance. Biol Rhythm Res 34:321–336. doi:10.1076/brhm.34.4.321.26229
Reilly T, Brooks GA (1982) Investigation of circadian rhythms in metabolic responses to exercise. Ergonomics 25:1093–1097. doi:10.1080/00140138208925067
Reilly T, Down A (1992) Investigation of circadian rhythm in anaerobic power and capacity of the legs. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 32:343–347
Reilly T, Edwards B (2007) Altered sleep-wake cycles and physical performance in athletes. Physiol Behav 90:274–284. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.09.017
Reilly T, Marshall S (1991) Circadian rhythms in power output on a swim bench. J Swimming Res 7:11–13
Reilly T, Mellor S (1988) Jet-lag in student Rugby League players following a near-maximal time-zone shift. In: Reilly T, Lees A, Davids K, Murphy WJ (eds) Science and football. Spon, London, pp 249–256
Reilly T, Walsh T (1981) Physiological, psychological and performance measures during an endurance record for 5-a-side soccer play. Br J Sports Med 15:122–128. doi:10.1136/bjsm.15.2.122
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Waterhouse J (1997a) Travel fatigue and jet-lag. J Sports Sci 15:365–369. doi:10.1080/026404197367263
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Waterhouse J (1997b) Biological Rhythms and Exercise. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 156
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Waterhouse J (2000) Chronobiology and physical performance. In: Garrett W Jr, Kirkendall D (eds) Exercise and sport science. Lippincott, Philadelphia, pp 351–372
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Budgett R (2001) Effect of low-dose temazepam on physiological variables and performance tests following a westerly flight across five time zones. Int J Sports Med 22:166–174. doi:10.1055/s-2001-16379
Reilly T, Waterhouse J, Edwards B (2005) Jet lag and air travel: implications for performance. Clin Sports Med 24:367–380. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2004.12.004
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Edwards B et al (2007a) Coping with jet-lag: a position statement for the European College of Sport Science. Eur J Sport Sci 7:1–7. doi:10.1080/17461390701216823
Reilly T, Atkinson G, Edwards B et al (2007b) Diurnal variation in temperature, mental and physical performance, and tasks specifically related to football (soccer). Chronobiol Int 24:507–519. doi:10.1080/07420520701420709
Samuels C (2008) Sleep, recovery, and performance: the new frontier in high-performance athletics. Neurol Clin 26:169–180. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.11.012
Sedliak M, Finni T, Cheng S et al (2007) Effect of time-of-day-specific strength training on serum hormone concentrations and isometric strength in men. Chronobiol Int 24:1159–1177. doi:10.1080/07420520701800686
Smith R, Guilleminault C, Efron B (1997) Circadian rhythms and enhanced athletic performance in the National Football League. Sleep 20:362–365
Souissi N, Gauthier A, Sesboue B et al (2002) Effects of regular training at the same time of day on diurnal fluctuations in muscular performance. J Sports Sci 20:929–937. doi:10.1080/026404102320761813
Souissi N, Sesboue B, Gauthier A et al (2003) Effects of one night’s sleep deprivation on anaerobic performance the following day. Eur J Appl Physiol 89:359–366. doi:10.1007/s00421-003-0793-7
Souissi N, Gauthier A, Sesboue B et al (2004) Circadian rhythms in two types of anaerobic cycle leg exercise: force-velocity and 30-s Wingate tests. Int J Sports Med 25:14–19. doi:10.1055/s-2003-45226
Souissi N, Bessot N, Chamari K et al (2007) Effect of time of day on aerobic contribution to the 30-s wingate test performance. Chronobiol Int 24:739–748. doi:10.1080/07420520701535811
Steenland K, Deddens J (1997) Effect of travel and rest on performance of professional basketball players. Sleep 20:366–369
Van Dongen H, Dinges D (2005) Sleep, circadian rhythms, and psychomotor vigilance. Clin Sports Med 24:237–249. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2004.12.007
Waterhouse J, Minors D, Åkerstedt T (2001) Rhythms of human performance. In: Takahashi J, Turek F, Moore R et al (eds) Handbook of behavioral neurobiology: circadian clocks. Kluver Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp 571–601
Waterhouse J, Reilly T, Edwards B (2004) The stress of travel. J Sports Sci 22:946–965. doi:10.1080/02640410400000264
Wyse J, Mercer T, Gleeson N (1994) Time-of-day dependence of isokinetic leg strength and associated interday variability. Br J Sports Med 28:167–170. doi:10.1136/bjsm.28.3.167
Youngstedt S, O’Connor P (1999) The influence of air travel on athletic performance. Sports Med 28:197–207. doi:10.2165/00007256-199928030-00004
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Reilly, T., Waterhouse, J. Sports performance: is there evidence that the body clock plays a role?. Eur J Appl Physiol 106, 321–332 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1066-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1066-x