Association between golf participation and selected medical conditions and risk markers
| Medical condition or risk marker | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | OR adjusted for age (95% CI) | OR adjusted for physical activity (95% CI) | OR adjusted for physical activity and age (95% CI) |
| High cholesterol (total) (non-golf n=3714, golf n=54) | 1.48 (0.86 to 2.54) | 1.29 (0.75 to 2.22) | 1.42 (0.78 to 2.58) | 1.20 (0.66 to 2.20) |
| High LDL (non-golf n=3091, golf n=50) | 1.28 (0.73 to 2.26) | 1.14 (0.65 to 2.03) | 1.13 (0.60 to 2.15) | 0.99 (0.52 to 1.89) |
| Glycaemic control (HbA1c) (non-golf n=3703, golf n=54) | 0.35 (0.05 to 2.53) | 0.24 (0.03 to 1.76) | 0.59 (0.08 to 4.37) | 0.42 (0.06 to 3.10) |
| Elevated plasma glucose (non-golf n=3129, golf n=50) | 0.89 (0.27 to 2.90) | 0.64 (0.19 to 2.10) | 1.49 (0.44 to 5.00) | 1.11 (0.33 to 3.73) |
| Overweight or obese (BMI >25) (non-golf n=7846, golf n=112) | 1.77* (1.15 to 2.75) | 1.44 (0.93 to 2.24) | 1.87* (1.07 to 3.25) | 1.41 (0.81 to 2.47) |
| High blood pressure (>140/90) (non-golf n=7979, golf n=110) | 1.30 (0.86 to 1.98) | 0.92 (0.59 to 1.42) | 1.33 (0.78 to 2.27) | 0.83 (0.48 to 1.43) |
| High quality of life (SF-12) score (non-golf n=9307, golf n=128) | 1.83* (1.03 to 3.26) | 2.31* (1.30 to 4.13) | 1.27 (0.57 to 2.80) | 1.50 (0.68 to 3.32) |
| Condition: self-reported (ever diagnosed) (non golf n=9307, golf n=128) | ||||
| Diabetes (type II) | 0.81 (0.26 to 2.57) | 0.60 (0.19 to 1.91) | 1.67 (0.52 to 5.42) | 1.06 (0.33 to 3.47) |
| Elevated blood glucose | 2.12 (0.92 to 4.87) | 2.04 (0.89 to 4.71) | 2.05 (0.74 to 5.71) | 1.97 (0.70 to 5.52) |
| High cholesterol (total or LDL) | 2.57* (1.61 to 4.10) | 2.04* (1.27 to 3.28) | 2.29* (1.22 to 4.30) | 1.61 (0.86 to 3.06) |
| Hypertension | 1.00 (0.58 to 1.72) | 0.73 (0.42 to 1.27) | 1.09 (0.54 to 2.22) | 0.70 (0.34 to 1.44) |
| Ischaemic heart disease | 2.83* (1.02 to 7.80) | 2.06 (0.74 to 5.76) | 4.15* (1.26 to 13.69) | 2.27 (0.67 to 7.68) |
| Tachycardia | 1.48 (0.60 to 3.66) | 1.21 (0.49 to 2.99) | 1.56 (0.48 to 5.04) | 1.27 (0.39 to 4.12) |
| Disease of the arteries | 3.12 (0.97 to 10.05) | 2.30 (0.71 to 7.45) | 4.57* (1.07 to 19.59) | 2.95 (0.68 to 12.82) |
| Low blood pressure | 0.37 (0.05 to 2.69) | 0.43 (0.06 to 3.11) | 0.59 (0.08 to 4.29) | 0.75 (0.10 to 5.47) |
| Kidney disease | 1.19 (0.29 to 4.88) | 1.03 (0.25 to 4.23) | 1.01 (0.14 to 7.41) | 0.92 (0.13 to 6.78) |
*Significant OR for golfers compared with non-golfers at p<0.05.
BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; SF-12, 12-Item Short Form Health Survey.