Discussion
Principal findings
Feasibility
This study indicates that it is feasible to study adult spectator PA (by pedometer-measured step counts) at a professional golf tournament. Approximately 56% of spectators approached agreed to participate, and of these, 97.2% returned questionnaire and step-count data.
It should be noted that it was not practical to engage with every spectator who entered the venue. Spectators can typically access the venue through more than one entrance and often arrive in groups having largely travelled by coach transfer. A larger number of researchers would be needed to engage with a larger volume and proportion of attending spectators.
Spectator reasons for attending
Spectators rated a number of reasons for attending this professional golf tournament as highly important. ‘Watch star players’, ‘atmosphere’, ‘fresh air’, ‘exercise/physical activity’ and ‘time with friends and family’ all scored median and mode values of 8 out of 10 or greater. Importantly, for this work, obtaining exercise/PA can be a motivation for attending for participants at this event. The median rating was 8 out of 10, with a mode of 10, representing ‘of extremely high importance’.
The extent to which spectating delivers an opportunity for PA
This is the first published study to measure golf spectator PA by step count. Data show participants took a mean of 11 589 (SD 4531, range 25 002) and a median of 11 086 steps. Through spectating alone, 82.9% of participants met Tudor-Locke et al’s daily guidelines indicative of a ‘physically active lifestyle’ from activity while spectating with 94.8% of spectators meeting either ‘low active’ or ‘physically active’ lifestyle.20 As may be expected, an increasing number of minutes spectating had a positive association with increased total steps taken. There were no apparent differences in step counts by age group, but there was a statistically significant and potentially clinically relevant difference by gender with male participants taking approximately 1858 more steps per day than female participants.
Comparison to the literature and explanation for findings
Spectator reasons for attending
A large body of research has assessed spectator motivations for attendance at sporting events, but most of these pertain to team-based sports,14 with data specific to golf limited.14–17 McDonald et al found clear spectator motivation differences between golf spectators and spectators of other sports.21
Watching star players is the most powerful motivator for golf spectator attendance in most previous studies conducted,14–17 and the current study supports the importance spectators place on this. Robinson et al argue that the prime marketing focus for events should be on specific well-recognised golfers playing.14 However, spectators in our sample rate at least equally highly other reasons for spectating including ‘fresh air’, ‘spending time with friends and family’ and ‘exercise/physical activity’. These data support Lyu and Lee’s assertion that factors such as these offer attractive marketing angles to tournament organisers/promoters, with the aim of increasing spectator volume and engagement.17
These factors were not probed as explicitly in Robinson et al’s study of US spectators, with the questionnaire employed not golf specific. It is known motivations for golf spectators are different to team sports, being broader and less homogeneous.21
Spectator attitudes towards changing exercise/PA
Evidence from North America, Asia and Europe is consistent and growing that exercise/PA can be a motivator for attending golf tournaments.15–17 Golf tournaments and their spectators are heterogeneous, and some may be more motivated than others by PA benefits based on individual, cultural, climactic and tournament differences. They may also be likely to be meeting minimum PA levels already. Our study did not find significant age-related and gender-related differences in attitudes of spectators towards exercise/PA. The literature broadly supports a greater emphasis of these benefits by event promoters,15–17 which may be beneficial in terms of engagement with spectators, local communities and funding organisations.
PA gained while spectating
There are no previous published studies that measured the levels of PA attained by golf spectators. Unpublished data (obtained via personal correspondence, Event Scotland) from the 2014 Ryder Cup, Gleneagles, UK, show over 20 000 spectators tagged every checkpoint at locations on course, indicating they had walked 8 kilometres each, or 100 000 miles collectively. At the 2016 Shenzhen Open, Shenzhen, China, 6500 spectators completed a ‘health walk’ intervention, of 10 km each, adding up to a distance seven times the length of the Great Wall of China (personal communication, Shenzhen Open).
Step counting using pedometers is a well-established method of measuring PA by the general public, researchers and policy-makers.20 Data showed that 82.9% of participants met Tudor-Locke et al’s moderate to vigorous physical activity daily guidelines (>7500 steps) from activity while spectating alone, when measured by step count. This is the first study to report PA levels in golf spectators. The self-reported interest in exercise/PA as a reason for attending may be important in explaining the high level of PA achieved. For some, attending the event may represent a deliberate attempt to gain HEPA, while others gain incidental HEPA through their desire to observe particular golfers or the course.16 17 Female step count may be lower than male spectators due to factors that may include footwear choice. Equivalent studies of spectator populations’ PA at other tournaments would likely be influenced (positively or negatively) by factors including but not limited to ambient weather conditions, cultural factors, type of tournament and terrain/walkability of the golf course.
Recommendations for practice/policy and research
Recent strategies from the Department of Culture, Media and Sport and Sport England among others have highlighted the value of spectating at sporting venues and the potential for inspiration and increasing PA.22 23 Increasingly, sports organisations/franchises, governing bodies for sport, stadia operators and others are being encouraged to develop practices and policies that promote improved public health for fans and communities. These include efforts relating to healthy eating, alcohol consumption, tobacco use and sustainability as well as promoting PA.
This study confirms it is feasible to study spectator PA and attitudes towards PA in a golf setting. Response rates were good, and compliance rates among participants were exceedingly high. We showed that a reasonable sample size can be achieved with a team of six trained researchers. This will be important information for future work and potential power calculations for sample size requirements. A well-structured questionnaire and collaboration with the tournament organisers are also highly recommended.
Golf spectating does offer an opportunity for PA in this setting and population. Attendance can thus be encouraged, and spectators can be supported to do so in an active fashion in promotional efforts ahead of and during each professional golf event. Golf tournament event planning, marketing efforts, golf course choice and architecture should reflect this. Fans/spectators can receive public health benefits, while tournament organisers/sponsors may realise revenue and corporate and social responsibility benefits. With two-thirds of participants indicating an interest to be more physically active, it may be an opportunity for intervention in a ‘contemplative’ population. While the participants were largely already meeting the guidelines, it should be noted that this is a minimum level of PA and more is better, and that maintenance of PA is critical in adult and ageing populations.
Research priorities for the future include
Assessing what methods for providing PA information/intervention (eg, big screen, leaflet, poster, email, direct conversation) are welcomed by spectators.
Investigating whether the spectating experience could be used as a teachable moment to raise awareness of personal PA behaviour, national guidelines and the benefits of PA and influence behavioural change.
Further study of spectator PA levels in different contexts, and with a larger and more representative sample, which may allow a better estimation of accrued PA, and potential gender and age differences.
Using qualitative methods to undertake an in-depth exploration of why exercise/PA is valued or not valued by spectators, and exploring the barriers to and facilitators of active spectating at professional golf tournaments among senior tournament decision makers.
Studying opportunities for other sports/events to explore spectator PA.
Strengths and limitations
This study was conducted with a pragmatic design and approach.
Strengths include a novel approach in raising awareness of PA through sport and demonstrating public health benefits of sporting events that have thus far been elusive. It also demonstrated the feasibility of conducting research with spectators at professional sporting events in collaboration with event organisers, governing bodies and athlete ambassadors. Research co-produced in this way may help implementation/scale up and assist impact and future intervention delivery in this manner. It is the first to objectively report PA accrued while spectating, while other findings are consistent with previous work describing spectator attitudes to exercise/PA.15–17
A number of limitations are evident. Although approximately 600 spectators were approached, those who agreed to wear a pedometer and take part in the study may be more interested in PA and be more physically active than those who declined leading to a selection bias. Observed results may be susceptible to bias; individuals may have modified their responses and behaviours (for example walked more or less) based on what they believe is socially desirable and awareness of their behaviours being observed (Hawthorne effect). Twenty individuals had conclusive proof of pedometer error (for example from GPS/other pedometer), and their step counts were excluded. A smaller number of individuals expressed an opinion that the pedometer had underestimated their step count, but were included due to lack of objective evidence to support, which may have led to an underestimate of their and the observed population’s step count. Step-count data were collected from entry to exit of venue, but did not capture participant PA during the other parts of their day. These limitations and sample size mandate caution in generalising to golf spectators more generally, particularly in different contexts.