Data extraction table
| Study | Design | Study population (n) | Mean age (years) | Movement or branch of sports | Setting | Feedback conditions | Training (No of days) | Retention | Outcome measures | Main results | |
| Eid et al21 | Clinical trial | 10 | — | Treadmill running | Lab | VTFB* Nike+ SportBand (VFB) No device | 1 | None | HR | VTFB = ↑ efficient regulating HR (↓ fluctuations) VTFB = bigger steps, breathing ↑ efficient Faster HR recovery | |
| Lieberman and Breazeal22 | Clinical trial | 40 | — | 5 df arm motions | Lab | VFB VVTFB | 1 | None | Joint angle error Average subject error (RMSE) | VVT = overall ↓ error of 21% (sig) Hinge joint errors ↓ (sig), rotational joint ≠ ↓ 15%↑ performance, 7% accelerate learning | |
| Sigrist et al26 | Randomised controlled trial | F: 8; M: 28 Total: 36 | 28±3.7 (22–40) | Rowing | Lab | Concurrent VFB Concurrent AFB Concurrent HFB Terminal FB (control) | 3 | Short term: start days 2 and 3 Long term: 1 day 1 week | Temporal error Spatial error RMSE Error in timing Error in velocity ratio Movement variability | H = larger + ↑⇔ movements (sig) FB + nFB V = ↑ performance with FB + ↓ cognitive demanding T early ↑ performance, but ↑ temporal error H = performance FB > nFB (faster execution in nFB) H = ↓ temporal and velocity error Terminal FB = ↑ effective than concurrent type of FB | |
| Spelmezan et al29 | Trial 1 | Exploratory study | F: 8; M: 12 Total: 20 | 25.25 (22–28) | — | Lab | Tactile stimulation † | 1 | None | Description of perceived FB | ↑↑ Variety in responses (50/50: push vs pull) SP = slower processing + ↑ attention |
| Trial 2 | Clinical trial | F: 4; M: 14 Total: 18 | (19–30) | Wii-balance board (slalom) | Lab | Random tactile motion instructions | 1 | 1 day | % Pattern recognition | High % pattern recognition relaxed + mobile No sig ⇔ performance retention versus test | |
| Trial 3 | Clinical trial | F: 4; M: 6 Total: 10 | (23–28) | Snowboarding | Reality based | VTFB * Audio instructions | 1 | None | RT % Pattern recognition Perception audio instructions | Faster RT to tactile instructions Audio instructions easier to interpret % Recognition A > VT (97% vs 87%) | |
| 28 | Randomised clinical trial | F: 22 | 20.1±1.06 | Rowing | Lab | Direct VT positional FB Direct n-positional FB Delayed n-positional FB | 1 | None | HR Timing of knee/back angle Speed | VT: ↓ HR over tests (↑ in other FB groups) No sig ⇔ in speed and timing between FB groups | |
| Spelmezan23 | Clinical trial | F: 2; M: 8 Total: 10 | (21–29) | Snowboarding | Reality based | Verbal instructions* Verbal + VTFB | 1 | None | System recognition accuracy M(O) % Riding mistakes | Verbal = ↑ effective for learning new skills VTFB + verbal FB = ↑ cognitive load VTFB = effective in simple exercises | |
| Jansen et al24 | Clinical trial | F: 7; M: 8 Total: 15 | (19–25) | Wrist rotation | Lab | SRT* CRT | 1 | None | RT | RT for L + R rotations EFR = most intuitive (= push) + ↓ RT | |
| van der Linden et al27 | Randomised controlled trial | F: 3; M: 5 Total: 8 | 25–30 | Playing the violin | Reality based | FB Control | 4 | Minimum 1 day | Proximal-distal deviation Vertical deviation | Sig ⇔ pretest versus test (VT: ↓ proximal-distal deviation) n-sig: test versus post-test → no learning effect C and FB Control: no obvious overall progress | |
| 25 | Clinical trial | F: 15; M: 11 Total: 26 | 23.2 (18–49) | 1–3 df arm motions | Lab | VFB* VVTFB | 4 | 4 days | RMS angle error Arm angle error Motion error | Average RMSE VVT = ↓ for 1 df motion (sig) VVT: larger ↓ error day 4 (1 and 3 df) VTFB difficult to interpret in multiple df Workload VVT > V (but sig ↓ over training) No sig effect of FB in retention or probe trial | |
*Within-subject design.
†Between-subjects design.
AFB, auditory feedback; CRT, choice reaction time; df, degrees of freedom; EFR, extrinsic frame of reference; F, female; FB, feedback; HFB, haptic feedback; HR, heart rate; L, left; M, male; M(O), systems latency; nFB, non-feedback trials; n-positional, non-positional; n-sig, non-significant; R, right; RMS, root mean square; RMSE, root mean square error; RT, reaction time; sig, significant; SP, simultaneous patterns; SRT, simple reaction time; VFB, visual feedback; VT, vibrotactile; VTFB, vibrotactile feedback; VVT, visual and vibrotactile; VVTFB, visual and vibrotactile feedback.